Relocation and dislocation: civilian, refugee, and military movement as factors in the disintegration of postwar China, 1945-49
September 2022
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Journal article
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Itinerario
This article argues that massive human displacement was one of the defining factors in China’s immediate postwar period (1945-49). It shows that at least three distinctive groups were dispersed during the wartime years and needed to be resettled after the war ended in August 1945: civilian refugees, administrators who had been relocated to the temporary capital at Chongqing, and troops transferred in anticipation of an upcoming civil war between the Nationalists and the Communists. The article argues that China’s new sovereign status in 1945 was paradoxically a source of weakness when it came to resettlement and reconstruction, as China sought international funds to undertake its own reconstruction, but could not demit responsibility to an external actor to organize matters as the US did in western Europe. A growing sense of anomie and unsettlement prevented resettlement and China remained a zone in which international and domestic conflict came together. Both sets of factors shaped the dislocation that destroyed the possibilities of a stable resettlement in China after the great displacement of wartime.
FFR
The perilous autumn of 1945: Chiang Ching-kuo between the local, the national and the global in the early Cold War
January 2022
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Conference paper
China's Good War: How World War II is Shaping a New Nationalism
September 2020
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Book
Identities and Alliances: China’s Place in the World after Pearl Harbor, 1941–1945
July 2019
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Chapter
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Beyond Pearl Harbor: A Pacific History
State-building after disaster: Jiang Tingfu and the reconstruction of post-World War II China, 1943-1949
December 2018
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Journal article
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Comparative Studies in Society and History
Post-World War II reconstruction in Europe and Asia is a topic of growing interest, but relatively little attention has been paid to the relief and rehabilitation effort in China in the immediate post-1945 period. This article reassesses the postwar program implemented by the Chinese Nationalist (Guomindang) government and the UNRRA (the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration), not just in terms of humanitarian relief, but also as part of a process that led to new thinking about the nature of the postwar state in Asia. It focuses on the ideas and actions of Jiang Tingfu (T. F. Tsiang), head of the Chinese National Relief and Rehabilitation Administration that worked with UNRRA. Chinese ideas for reconstruction in China were simultaneously statist, international, and transnational, and were shaped by high modern ideas drawn from Soviet and American examples. They were also influenced by China's poverty and wartime vulnerability, which made locally directed solutions more relevant in areas such as public hygiene. Success was unlikely because of the incipient Chinese Civil War and the huge demands of reconstruction on a state that was near-destitute, with a destroyed infrastructure. Nonetheless, its characteristics still bear examination as a first, tentative chapter in a longer story of post-imperialist and Cold War state-building that would shape countries in Asia and beyond.
China, Asia, postwar, Guomindang, relief, rehabilitation, Jiang Tingfu, developmental state, UNRRA, modernization, Chinese Civil War
Presentism and China’s changing wartime past
January 2017
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Journal article
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Past and Present
The term ‘presentism’ has a variety of applications, but in this piece I shall adapt the analysis made by S. A. Smith in his article within this forum, making reference to Hartog’s idea of a ‘regime of historicity’, of a ‘sense that only the present exists’, to propose a specific argument with regard to one topic: the historical analysis of China’s experience during the Second World War. In the high Cold War era, the topic of China’s wartime experience was taken by many American historians to be part of a continuum that informed a wider debate on the US presence in Asia. In the post-Cold War era, the same topic has been taken up by Chinese historians as a means of creating a new continuum between a wartime past and a politically turbulent present by elision of the revolutionary past. If, in Hartog’s terms, the present is all that exists, the present ‘regime of historicity’ in China creates that present in part by a deliberate removal of some parts of the past which suggest difference rather than similarity with the present.
The War Years, 1937-1949
June 2016
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Chapter
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The Oxford Illustrated History of Modern China
The Troubled Empire: China in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010). Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 2nd edition(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
History
Nationalism, decolonization, geopolitics and the Asian post-war
April 2015
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Chapter
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The Cambridge History of the Second World War
British Diplomacy and Changing Views of Chinese Governmental Capability over the Sino-Japanese War, 1937-1945
December 2014
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Chapter
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Negotiating China's Destiny in World War II
Negotiating China's Destiny explains how China developed from a country that hardly mattered internationally into the important world power it is today. Before World War II, China had suffered through five wars with European powers as well as American imperial policies resulting in economic, military, and political domination. This shifted dramatically during WWII, when alliances needed to be realigned, resulting in the evolution of China's relationships with the USSR, the U.S., Britain, France, India, and Japan. Based on key historical archives, memoirs, and periodicals from across East Asia and the West, this book explains how China was able to become one of the Allies with a seat on the Security Council, thus changing the course of its future.
History
Mao Zedong
January 2014
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Chapter
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Anticipations of the Asian Century
Forgotten Ally China's World War II, 1937-1945
September 2013
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Book
An Economist Book of the Year A Financial Times Book of the Year “A book that has long cried out to be written.” — Observer (UK), Books of the Year In 1937, two years before Hitler invaded Poland, Chinese troops clashed with Japanese ...
History
China's War with Japan, 1937-1945: The Struggle for Survival
June 2013
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Book
Different countries give different opening dates for the period of the Second World War, but perhaps the most compelling is 1937, when the 'Marco Polo Bridge Incident' plunged China and Japan into a conflict of extraordinary duration and ferocity - a war which would result in many millions of deaths and completely reshape East Asia in ways which we continue to confront today.
With great vividness and narrative drive Rana Mitter's new book draws on a huge range of new sources to recreate this terrible conflict. He writes both about the major leaders (Chiang Kaishek, Mao Zedong and Wang Jingwei) and about the ordinary people swept up by terrible times. Mitter puts at the heart of our understanding of the Second World War that it was Japan's failure to defeat China which was the key dynamic for what happened in Asia.
Nationalism in East Asia, 1839–1945
March 2013
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Chapter
China and the Cold War
January 2013
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Chapter
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The Oxford Handbook of the Cold War
44 Human Society, 4408 Political Science, 36 Creative Arts and Writing, Clinical Research
Imperialism, Transnationalism and the Reconstruction of Postwar China, 1944-6
January 2013
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Journal article
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Past and Present: A Journal of Historical Studies
Benjamin H. Kizer arrived in December 1944 in the wartime Chinese capital of Chongqing (Chungking) as the head of the China Office of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), itself established only a year previously. Kizer wrote at some length of the difficulty of the journey, having been warned more than once that it was one of the worst postings possible: Chongqing was hot, hilly, and lacking in any workable transport network. The buildings he was assigned were better than many, however. ‘On clear days, which are rare at this season’, Kizer noted, ‘they command a fine view of the river and the hills beyond’.2 Even clear days had their own hazards: in summer, temperatures in Chongqing reach 40 degrees Celsius and more. Nor were the surroundings much to gladden the heart. After seven years of war, and constant Japanese aerial bombardment, wartime Chongqing was a mixture of rubble and hastily thrown-up buildings, reflecting the fact that the city had expanded its population by several hundred thousand in just a few years.
Still, Kizer had not come to Chongqing for the weather, or the scenery. He was coming to manage what was the largest single-country programme of the whole UNRRA project. There was an immense amount to do. Ever since the war with Japan had begun in the hot July of 1937, China’s painfully acquired modernization under its Nationalist (Guomindang or Kuomintang) government, led by Chiang Kaishek, had been largely destroyed. Both physical infrastructure, including railways and roads, as well as the institutional infrastructure of government, were shattered by the forced move of the government inland.3 Kizer’s main interlocutor was Jiang Tingfu (T. F. Tsiang), head of the newly established China National Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (CNRRA), an American-educated former historian and diplomat who would later …
Introduction
January 2013
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Other
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Past & Present
4303 Historical Studies, 43 History, Heritage and Archaeology
The Enduring War: Experience, Legacy and Memory of the Sino-Japanese War, 1937-45
January 2013
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Book
Communism, Confucianism, and Charisma: the Political in Modern China
October 2012
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Chapter
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Comparative Political Thought Theorizing Practices
This edited book introduces students and scholars to Comparative Political Thought.
Philosophy
War and memory since 1945
September 2012
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Chapter
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The Cambridge History of War
Introduction: Relief and Reconstruction in Wartime China
January 2012
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Other
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European Journal of East Asian Studies
1911: The Unanchored Revolution
December 2011
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Journal article
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China Quarterly: an international journal for the study of China
One hundred years after the 1911 Revolution (Xinhai Revolution) in China, its meaning continues to be highly contested. Paradoxically, the more time that passes, the less certain either political actors or scholars seem to be about the significance of 1911 for the path of Chinese revolutionary history. This essay examines three phenomena: the appropriation of 1911 in contemporary political and popular culture; the use of 1911 as a metaphor for contemporary politics by PRC historians; and the changing meaning of 1911 over the past ten decades, particularly during the years of the war against Japan. The essay concludes that it is precisely the “unanchored” nature of 1911, separated from any one path of historical interpretation, that has kept its meaning simultaneously uncertain and potent.
Mao Zedong and Charismatic Maoism
March 2011
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Chapter
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Makers of Modern India
Hardly more than a decade old, the twenty-first century has already been dubbed the Asian Century in recognition of China and India s increasing importance in world affairs. Yet discussions of Asia seem fixated on economic indicators gross national product, per capita income, share of global trade. Makers of Modern Asia "reorients our understanding of contemporary Asia by highlighting the political leaders, not billionaire businessmen, who helped launch the Asian Century. The nationalists who crafted modern Asia were as much thinkers as activists, men and women who theorized and organized anticolonial movements, strategized and directed military campaigns, and designed and implemented political systems. The eleven thinker-politicians whose portraits are presented here were a mix of communists, capitalists, liberals, authoritarians, and proto-theocrats a group as diverse as the countries they represent. From China, the world s most populous country, come four: Mao Zedong, leader of the Communist Revolution; Zhou Enlai, his close confidant; Deng Xiaoping, purged by Mao but rehabilitated to play a critical role in Chinese politics in later years; and Chiang Kai-shek, whose Kuomintang party formed the basis of modern Taiwan. From India, the world s largest democracy, come three: Mohandas Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Indira Gandhi, all of whom played crucial roles in guiding India toward independence and prosperity. Other exemplary nationalists include Vietnam s Ho Chi Minh, Indonesia s Sukarno, Singapore s Lee Kuan Yew, and Pakistan s Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto. With contributions from leading scholars, Makers of Modern Asia" illuminates the intellectual and ideological foundations of Asia s spectacular rise to global prominence
Biography & Autobiography
China in World War II, 1937-1945: Experience, Memory, and Legacy
Classifying Citizens in Nationalist China during World War II, 1937-1945
March 2011
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Journal article
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Modern Asian Studies
This paper argues that the first phase of the Sino-Japanese War of 1937–1945 saw a significant change in the relationship between state and society in China, leading to a greater use of techniques of classification of the citizenry for purposes of welfare provision and mobilization through propaganda, methods until recently more associated with the Communists than with their Nationalist rivals. The paper draws on materials from Sichuan, the key province for wartime resistance, showing that the use of identity cards and welfare provision regulations were part of a process of integrating refugees from occupied China into the wider wartime society, and that propaganda campaigns were deployed to persuade the local indigenous population to support wartime state initiatives. Although Nationalist efforts to mobilize the population in wartime were flawed and partial, they marked a significant change in the conception of Chinese citizenship.
Modern Asian Studies Special Issues
March 2011
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Other
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Modern Asian Studies
China's long war against Japan from 1937 to 1945 has remained in the shadows of historiography until recently, both in China and abroad. In recent years, the opening of archives and a widening of the opportunity to discuss the more controversial aspects of the wartime period in China itself have restored World War II in China (‘the War of Resistance to Japan’) to a much more central place in historical interpretation. Among the areas that this issue covers are the new socio-political history of the war that seeks to restore rationality to the policies of the Guomindang (Nationalist) party, as well as a new understanding in post-war China of the meaning of the war against Japan in shaping Cold War and post-Cold War politics in China. In doing so, it seeks to make more explicit the link between themes that shaped the experience of World War II in China to the war's legacy in later politics and the uses of memory of the conflict in contemporary Chinese society.
Changed by War: The Changing Historiography Of Wartime China and New Interpretations Of Modern Chinese History
January 2010
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Journal article
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The Chinese Historical Review: the journal of Chinese historians in the United States
In The 1930s, two wars captured the imaginations of western progressives. One of them, the Spanish Civil War, still lives in popular historical memory. The other, the Sino-Japanese War of 1937-45, known in China at the War of Resistance against Japan (Kang-Ri zhanzheng), has been much more in the historiographical and cultural shadows since 1945. Only relatively recently has this situation changed. This research note reflects briefly on some of the reasons for those changes, and notes two areas in which rethinking the role of the war against Japan might serve to refocus aspects of the field of modern Chinese history: the relationship of local and national history, and a reassessment of the immediate postwar period (1945-49). Overall, the note argues that the history of China's wartime experience is becoming historiographically both globalized and normalized: in other words, there are trends similar to those seen in the interpretation of the wartime experience in other belligerent countries. The War of Resistance is expanding its territory on China's mental map, and slowly reemerging on a more global historical map as well.
Maps, Minds and Visions: Chiang Kaishek, Mao Zedong and China’s Place in the World
July 2008
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Chapter
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Mental Maps in the Era of Two World Wars
This book explores the 'mental maps' of leading political figures of the era of two world wars.
History
Modern China: A Very Short Introduction
April 2008
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Book
China today is never out of the news: from international finance to human rights controversies, global coverage of its rising international presence, and the Chinese ‘economic miracle’. It seems to be a country of contradictions: a peasant society with some of the world’s most futuristic cities; heir to an ancient civilization that is still trying to find a modern identity. Modern China: A Very Short Introduction offers the reader an entry to understanding the world’s most populous nation, giving an integrated picture of modern Chinese society, culture, economy, politics, and art. This new edition addresses China’s current global position, accounting for the country’s growth in global significance over the past decade.
Fiction
Maoism in the Cultural Revolution: A Political Religion?
January 2008
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Chapter
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The sacred in twentieth-century politics
History
Picturing Victory: The Visual Imaginary of the War of Resistance, 1937–1947
January 2008
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Journal article
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European Journal of East Asian Studies
The Sino-Japanese War of 1937–1947 has not been sufficiently understood as a narrative in its own right, but rather, as a transitional conflict between Nationalist and Communist rule. The examination of the visual imagery of warfare disseminated through newsprint and books is one way to reinterpret the history of this period. Through a close reading of images printed in a Shanghai newspaper, Zhonghua ribao, during the final days of the battle for the city in 1937, we see how the news was shaped to impose a narrative of order with a positive teleology at a time when China was plunged into chaos with no guarantee of the eventual outcome of the war. The nature of this narrative is explored through examination of images of the body, as well as the positioning of images in the context of the printed page. The conclusion then contrasts these images with a pictorial history of the Sino-Japanese War published during the Civil War, in 1947. It suggests that although this book is able to bring narrative closure to the earlier conflict, its own narrative is imbued with an unease caused by the reality of the new war that had broken out within months of the ending of the war against Japan, and suggests that narrative closure is never truly obtained.
Writing War: Autobiography, Modernity and Wartime Narrative in Nationalist China, 1937–1946
January 2008
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Journal article
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Transactions of the Royal Historical Society
The Sino-Japanese War of 1937–45 was perhaps the single most destructive event in twentieth-century Chinese history. However, there has been relatively little attention paid to how war was experienced in the Nationalist-controlled area (‘Free China’) under Chiang Kaishek. Two autobiographical texts are examined here, one a sequence of reportage from the early war years by the journalist Du Zhongyuan, and one a biji (notebook) written immediately after the war's end by the social scientist Xu Wancheng. By choosing particular modern or anti-modern genres and styles to write in, the authors expressed a wider sentiment about the war's ambiguous role in modernising China. Du's work hopes to create modernity from destruction; Xu's suggests that modern warfare has created chaos.
Le massacre de Nankin
April 2007
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Journal article
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Vingtième Siècle Revue d histoire
4303 Historical Studies, 43 History, Heritage and Archaeology
Educating Citizens Through War Museums in Modern China
April 2007
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Chapter
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Manufacturing Citizenship: Education and Nationalism in Europe, South Asia and China
In recent years citizenship has emerged as a very important topic in the sciences, mainly as a result of the effects of migration, population displacements and cultural heterogeneity.
This book focuses on educational enterprise and how it affects national ambitions, cultural preferences and political trends. It also examines the major effects of globalisation, the large-scale movements of populations, and the impact this all has in terms of education and citizenship.
With contributions from an array of international scholars including Etienne Balibar, and featuring various international case studies, Manufacturing Citizenship will be extremely interesting to the education academic community as well as many readers within cultural studies and politics.
Education
Ruptured Histories: War, Memory, and the Post-Cold War in Asia
April 2007
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Book
This volume not only illuminates regional and global changes in East Asia today, but also underscores the need for rethinking the Cold War language that continues to inform U.S.-East Asian relations.
History
Aesthetics, Modernity, and Trauma: Public Art and the Memory of War in Contemporary China
January 2007
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Chapter
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Asian Art History in the Twenty-First Century
This publication is based on the proceedings of the Clark Conference 'Asian Art History in the Twenty-First Century,' held 27-29 April 2006 at the Asia Society, New York, and the Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute, Williamstown,...
Art
Hegemony and Liberation: Mao Zedong and Zou Taofen in Early Twentieth-century China
January 2007
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Chapter
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Counterhegemony in the Colony and Postcolony
4410 Sociology, 44 Human Society
‘Life’ as they knew it: Du Zhongyuan’s editorial strategies for the Xinsheng (new life) weekly, 1934-35
January 2007
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Chapter
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Reading China
Culture
January 2006
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Chapter
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Palgrave Advances in Cold War History
4702 Cultural Studies, 4705 Literary Studies, 43 History, Heritage and Archaeology, 47 Language, Communication and Culture, 4303 Historical Studies, 16 Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
MODERNITY, INTERNATIONALIZATION, AND WAR IN THE HISTORY OF MODERN CHINA
June 2005
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Journal article
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The Historical Journal
4303 Historical Studies, 43 History, Heritage and Archaeology
A Bitter Revolution: China's Struggle with the Modern World
May 2005
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Book
Rana Mitter goes back to this pivotal moment in Chinese history to uncover the origins of the painful transition from a premodern past into a modern world.
History
Manchuria in Mind: Press, Propaganda, and Northeast China in the Age of Empire, 1930-37
January 2005
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Chapter
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Crossed Histories: Manchuria in the Age of Empire
Crossed Histories represents a collaborative and interdisciplinary approach to "Manchuria" under Japan’s influence from the turn of the twentieth century to 1945. The contributors, who represent the fields of history, literature, film studies, sociology, and anthropology, unpack the complexity of Manchuria as an effect of the geopolitical imaginaries of various individuals and groups shaped by imperialism, colonialism, Pan-Asianism, and the present globalization. Manchuria is thus examined in the imaginations of a Chinese journalist and his Shanghai readers in the 1930s; prewar Japanese city planners and architects; a Manchu princess later executed by the Chinese nationalist government; various audiences of Japanese "goodwill films" of the 1930s and 1940s; the seven thousand Poles who immigrated to northern Manchuria in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries; the state makers of Manchukuo (which included both Japanese and Chinese leaders) and North and South Korea during the Cold War era; and a student of Manchuria Nation- Building University in the mid-1940s.
History
Across the Blocs Cold War Cultural and Social History
February 2004
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Book
This book asks the reader to reassess the Cold War not just as superpower conflict and high diplomacy, but as social and cultural history.
Political Science
East is East and West is West? Towards a comparative socio-cultural history of the Cold War
October 2003
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Journal article
The Individual and the International ""I'': Zou Taofen and Changing Views of China's Place in the International System
April 2003
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Journal article
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Global Society
44 Human Society
An Uneasy Engagement: Chinese Ideas of Global Order and Justice in Historical Perspective
February 2003
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Chapter
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Order and Justice in International Relations
43 History, Heritage and Archaeology, 44 Human Society, 4303 Historical Studies, 50 Philosophy and Religious Studies, 4408 Political Science, 16 Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
Evil Empire?: Competing Constructions of Japanese Imperialism in Manchuria, 1928-1937
January 2003
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Chapter
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Imperial Japan and National Identities in Asia, 1895-1945
Between 1895 and 1945, Japan was heavily engaged in other parts of Asia, first in neighbouring Korea and northeast Asia, later in southern China and Southeast Asia. During this period Japanese ideas on the nature of national identities in Asia changed dramatically. At first Japan discounted the significance of nationalism, but in time Japanese authorities came to see Asian nationalisms as potential allies, especially if they could be shaped to follow Japanese patterns. At the same time, the ways in which other Asians thought of Japan also changed. Initially many Asians saw Japan as a useful but distant model, but with the rise of Japanese political power, this distant admiration turned into both cooperation and resistance. This volume includes chapters on India, Tibet, Siberia, Mongolia, Korea, Manchukuo, China, Taiwan, Vietnam, Thailand, the Philippines and Indonesia.
History
Old Ghosts, New Memories: China's Changing War History in the Era of Post-Mao Politics
January 2003
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Journal article
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Journal of Contemporary History
Contention and Redemption: Ideologies of National Salvation in Republican China
December 2002
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Journal article
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Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions
The politics of the Republican period in China (1912-49) are often interpreted as a battle between the Nationalists of Chiang Kaishek and the Communists of Mao Zedong, with the transformative ideology of the latter given credit for their eventual victory. However, the political disunity of the Republic actually gave rise to a whole variety of redemptive ideologies whose aim was to redefine 'the people' and 'save the country'. In considering ways forward for China, some political actors took paths ignored or rejected by both the Nationalists and Communists, such as harnessing enthusiasm for popular religion or experimenting with collaboration with the Japanese, both before and during the Second World War. The triumph of secular, progressivist ideology in China was by no means inevitable, and terms such as 'democracy', and 'nation' were strongly contested by rival ideologues who sought to promote their versions of modernity. The article attempts an overview of the varying paths to 'national salvation' in Republican China, and suggests that the competition between systems of thought did not provide any overall victor until late into the period.
The Manchurian Myth: Nationalism, Resistance, and Collaboration in Modern China
November 2000
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Book
A powerful element in twentieth-century Chinese politics has been the myth of Chinese resistance to Japan's seizure of Manchuria in 1931. Investigating the shifting alliances of key players in that event, Rana Mitter traces the development of the narrative of resistance to the occupation and shows how it became part of China's political consciousness, enduring even today. After Japan's September 1931 military strike leading to a takeover of the Northeast, the Chinese responded in three major ways: collaboration, resistance in exile, and resistance on the ground. What motives prompted some Chinese to collaborate, others to resist? What were conditions like under the Japanese? Through careful reading of Chinese and Japanese sources, particularly local government records, newspapers, and journals published both inside and outside occupied Manchuria, Mitter sheds important new light on these questions.
History
Behind the Scenes at the Museum: Nationalism, History and Memory in the Beijing War of Resistance Museum, 1987–1997
March 2000
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Journal article
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China Quarterly: an international journal for the study of China
At Wanping, around 50 kilometres from the centre of Beijing, the shots that began the eight-year war between China and Japan were fired in 1937. On the site there now stands the Memorial Museum of the Chinese People's War of Resistance to Japan (the museum's own translation of its title, Zhongguo renmin kang-Ri zhanzheng jinianguan). Inside, a wide array of materials is displayed, but among the most prominent are the waxwork diorama reconstructions of Japanese atrocities against the Chinese. One such display shows a Japanese scientist in a white coat, intent on carrying out a gruesome bacteriological warfare experiment, plunging his scalpel into the living, trussed-up body of a Chinese peasant resistance fighter. But just in case this is not enough to drive the message home, the museum designers have added a refinement: a motor inside the waxwork of the peasant, which makes his body twitch jerkily as if in response to the scalpel, an unending series of little movements until the switch is turned off at closing time.