Karl Marx in his life time was an obscure theoretical scribbler, and his death in 1883 received barely a mention in the London Times. By the turn of the century, however, millions of European workers subscribed at least rhetorically to his doctrine of revolutionary socialism. Even socialist ‘reformism’ anticipated no mere tinkering but a complete transformation of society. Real democracy was widely understood to be incompatible with the continued existence of capitalism. The working masses, so long despised and abused, seemed ready to ‘storm heaven’. Liberals were astonished and disturbed to find themselves no longer in the vanguard of ‘progressive politics’. The mighty executive states of Europe swung between concession and repression as they grappled with the radicalism of a politicised working class. When war and revolution did shatter the stability of the old order, however, socialists found themselves, not coming into their inheritance, but plunged into division and retreat.

This paper examines the federation of socialist parties that sprang up from the 1880s across Europe and even further afield. Within this ‘Second International,’ political debate was passionate. There were few discussions of abstract principles: almost the entirety of core socialist belief had already been developed by intellectuals and idealists in the first half of the nineteenth century. The Second International instead grappled with practical problems: Would a naturally expanding proletariat bring socialists to power on a majority vote? Was there any need for, or hope in, revolutionary insurrection? How might women or oppressed nationalities be appealed to? Was militarism a harbinger of capitalism’s decline, or a brutal strengthening of the elites? What would a socialist government actually do, the day after the ‘revolution’? We shall be looking at how an international, messianic movement played out in particular and national, even regional, contexts. The anarchist challenge to mainstream socialist assumptions, both in terms of intellectual libertarianism and of dramatic terrorist assassinations and bombings, will be examined. The response of liberals, conservatives and – ultimately – fascists to the socialist challenge will be considered. This is not a paper discussing the socialist movement in isolation: as such it provides an insight into an entire era in history, one very different from our own but, with the strains of globalisation again so apparent, rich in relevance. Most sources are short and all are accessible and non-technical. The aim here is not intensive examination of classic texts. We seek instead to get a broad feel for the cut and thrust of vibrant debate in the period. While the Second International was in formal existence from 1889 to 1916, we shall cover the period c. 1881 to 1921, so as to trace its emergence and demise. No prior knowledge of political theory will be assumed.